“A Brief History of the Wild Turkey in Indiana”

“The first turkey that ever came to me on the ground did it a long time ago. I sat there with my hands shaking and my breath short and my heart hammering so hard I could not understand why he could not hear it. The last turkey that came to me last spring had exactly the same effect, and the day that this does not happen to me is the day that I quit.”
—Tom Kelly

Indiana is a fantastic state for turkey hunting. Hands down.

Today, wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) are found in all 92 counties in Indiana. However, Indiana hasn’t always been a destination state for those who chase the wily king of the woodlands. By the early 1900s, wild turkeys were extirpated from Indiana and many parts of the US due to habitat loss and unregulated hunting. So how did we get to where we are today?

A Timeless Fascination

“In 1781 no finer hunting-grounds could have been found than were in the valley of the Ohio River. There were then but few settlements on the river below Wheeling, and those were on the Virginia side along the eastern bank. It was several years later before land was taken up on the Ohio side, for that was the Indian country; yet the settlers on the eastern shore used to cross often to the western side to hunt for deer and wild turkeys, which were there very abundant.”

This account, preserved in the Rensselaer Union in March of 1879, describes what life in the Ohio River valley once looked like at the end of the eighteenth century. When settlers first arrived in Indiana in the 1700s, over 20 million acres of forests covered the land. Across North America, early settlers experienced the vast wilderness in much the same way. Most believed manifest destiny had set them plum square in the middle of an unbelievable abundance of wildlife, and that no amount of hunting could ever deplete their supply. Today, historians call this belief shared by the settlers the “myth of superabundance,” and it applied to all natural resources, including the wild turkey.

By the middle of the nineteenth century, it was clear that game laws were going to be necessary to conserve wildlife and natural resources. These were none-too-popular with the average American, especially the market hunters, but the pages of Forest and Stream and other conservation magazines were filled with proclamations of early hunters-conservationists calling for game laws and regulations to conserve what wildlife remained. One of the things that had distinguished America from Europe was the ability of the common man to hunt game for sustenance or to make a living. Folks were slow to come around, but over time the depletion of wild game won in the court of public opinion.

By 1858, for example, the Indiana game laws stated “That it shall be unlawful to shoot, trap, or otherwise destroy wild turkeys, between the first day of March and the first day of September in each year.” A fine was levied for those who were caught. But, these early game laws were often ineffective because there was no real way to enforce them. By 1903, the deer, pheasant, and turkey seasons were closed in Indiana.

Hoosiers had an abiding love affair with the “feathered big game of America,” and that fondness surely inspired public support for reintroduction and conservation. In November 1902  Indianapolis News, ran an article titled “World’s Finest Game Bird Is the Turkey” that proclaimed “[h]e who views the great American bird only gastronomically, is a stranger to the truly noble emotions that the thought of the creature produces in the breast of the more fortunate man – the man who has once shot, or merely tried to shoot, the wild gobbler in his wild woods…He is big enough to satisfy some of the material craving of even the big game hunter. He eludes the still-hunter as subtly as the shyest deer. He gives the cross-country rider, coursing him with hound and hare, a run that often is equal to fox hunting.”

As is clear from so many accounts, the respect turkey hunters feel for America’s feathered big game transcends time. What this anonymous reporter for the Indianapolis News wrote in 1896 is something that could have been written by any one of us: “an old turkey gobbler is the quickest, swiftest, shiest and most knowing animal with wings or without. He can run like a greyhound, smell like a deer, see like an eagle, and fly away, leaving you to wonder why the answer doesn’t keep on coming.” Sitting against a tree, as the morning grows long, pins and needs climbing your legs to your numb bum, wondering where that gobbler who had been gobbling heartily all morning has gone? A centuries old tradition, as it turns out.

Extirpation

By 1902, Hoosiers lamented that Indiana was no longer a place for the pursuit of the wily gobbler. In 1903, several states began enacting laws banning the sale of wild game, including wild turkey, but for many it was already too late. And Hoosiers were not alone. By 1920, the wild turkey had disappeared from 18 of the original 39 states and Ontario. By the late 1930s, wild turkey populations dropped to all-time lows, surviving in only the most inaccessible areas. Habitat loss and unregulated hunting had spelled their doom.

As the Indianapolis News reported in 1896, it was a wonder that turkeys existed in North America at all as “all manner of nefarious schemes have been concocted for his destruction.” Pot hunters, of course, were the primary culprits. They were known to stalk the edge of the woods looking for gobblers and, once spied, stalk the woods for the roost. After dark, whole flocks would be killed on the roost in a terrible, unsporting display. The author also laments baiting, the use of pens, and 4-bore muzzle loaders capable of blowing “the heads off of a large part of the gang.” These are examples of “the ways a turkey ought not to be hunted, or rather, butchered.”

(Indianapolis News 1896)

In the late nineteenth century, Hoosiers could still travel to hunt turkey as their populations persisted in some southern states. Pennsylvania still held birds, but southern states such as Virginia (including President Theodore Roosevelt’s old hunting grounds in Culpepper County), West Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee were common destinations for Hoosier turkey hunters at the turn of the century. In 1880, one Forest and Stream contributor made clear that even in places where birds remained, finding them was more than half the battle: “I will not attempt to describe the indescribable charm of hunting the game. To understand it at all one must know the surroundings and be in full harmony therewith – must have some aptitude in the art of ‘roughing it,’ and have sufficient practice in horseback riding to render a jaunt of fifteen or twenty miles a day, over mountains, through valleys, across streams, with fences to pull down, and thickets to penetrate, a pastime instead of a labor.”

(Indianapolis News, November 22, 1902)

Habitat loss, especially deforestation, and overhunting for the market led to the turkey’s decline throughout the Midwest. By 1900, wild turkeys were nearly extirpated from Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio. And around that time the battle for game laws, their enforcement, and bag limits was heated. As states worked to introduce bag limits for all number of game animals, many banned turkey hunting altogether; the future looked bleak.

Reintroduction and Conservation

“It has periodically been prophesied for nearly a century that the wild turkey would shortly become extinct, but fortunately this is not the case, for although Americans have been notoriously wasteful of wildlife, even to the utter extermination of numerous species, yet they are now leading the world in an effort to conserve our wild game. The United States is a nation of hunters, and as most hunters have a keen appreciation of nature, it is most natural that American sportsmen, as a class, have become ardent supporters of conservation. Colonel Roosevelt was the pioneer conservationist, and it is greatly due to his Conservation Policies, and the inspiration he gave to the young manhood of the country, that we have changed from a system of wanton destruction to one of patriotic conservation.” (Herschel Robinson, “The Haunts of the Wild Turkey,” Forest and Stream v. 91, 1921)

By the middle of the century, wildlife experts began reintroduction attempts referred to as “trap and transfer.” Dale News, out of Spencer County, ran an article on November 29^th, 1940 titled “Wild Turkey were Numerous in Pioneer Days – Attempting Restoration.” The author wrote that under the leadership of the Commissioner of the Department of Conservation, Virgil M. Simmons, nearly two hundred wild turkeys were released, chiefly in the wooded, thinly populated sections of the south-central part of the state. But early efforts were not successful: “Kept under close observation by game wardens and interested conservationists, the turkeys gradually disappeared and it is believed that most of them joined the flocks of domestic birds in areas where they had been liberated. An occasional report is still received of a wild turkey having been seen by some startled hunter.”

Another challenge to reintroduction early on was the cost. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, a trapped turkey cost around $266, 75% of which was covered by Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration funds, the other 25% provided from hunting license sales. While reintroduction was a state-led initiative, federal funding was clearly essential, and Indiana could not have done it alone. And, as is a common theme in the history of conservation in North America, sporting folk helped to foot the bill.

Early on, there were mixed results. Biologists learnt that pen-raised or domestic game farm birds did not fare well in the wild, so trapping from areas with established populations was necessary. Aldo Starker Leopold’s (the other Aldo Leopold) research into wild turkeys in Missouri, “The Nature of Heritable Wildness in Turkeys,” published in The Condor in 1944, helped biologists to correct course. Turkeys were released in areas where numbers had diminished, but this proved difficult. More were needed than could be trapped, in large part due to trapping techniques.

But, as trapping techniques improved, so did the results. Wildlife experts learnt that at least 16 birds were required for a successful reintroduction. The most common method was baiting sites one month prior to attempting to trap the birds. Biologists would wait in camouflaged blinds and fire nets over the feeding birds. Birds were captured, banded, and released in areas with adequate habitat. In 3 to 4 years, the 16 released turkey can expand their numbers to the point where there may be a huntable population.

Predators also were a concern. Research has shown that coyotes and bobcats do not have much of an impact on turkey populations, which is a surprise to many. Raccoons, on the other hand, were brought to new parts of the country by way of abandoned homesteads, which made for good raccoon habitat, and their numbers exploded. As nest raiders, raccoons, opossums, and skunks have the greatest impact come nesting season.

Wildlife research also continued to shed light on what makes for good habitat. While availability of winter foods has long been understood to be essential to turkey survival, good brood-rearing habitat was discovered to be another “limiting factor” in determining turkey population levels in areas that otherwise looked like they would sustain turkeys. Poult survival is essential, and these young birds require a diversity of herbaceous cover and abundant insect foods during the summer.

(“Annual wild turkey production in Indiana,” Indiana Department of Natural Resources)

Reintroduction proved successful enough that in 1970, Indiana had its first wild turkey season of the century. It was an application hunt and out of 1600 applicants 62 lucky hunters were able to chase birds in 3 counties. Six gobblers were bagged, a 9.68% success rate.

The first season had folks excited, and the comeback of the wild turkey across the nation was something worth celebrating. Banner Graphic, out of Putnam County, published an article on November 6^th, 1973, titled “Wild Turkey Out of Trouble and onto Nation’s Tables.” The paper celebrated that in 1973 128,000 turkeys were harvested across North America, and nationally the birds numbered over 1 million. Alabama boasted 250,000, and in Iowa, where they had been extirpated in 1907, there was a population of 400 birds.

A combination of strictly enforced game laws and continued restoration and conservation efforts contributed to the continued growth of Indiana’s flock. Between 1956 and 2004, 2,795 wild turkeys were trapped and released at 185 sites around Indiana, and habitat improvement projects were pivotal.

By 1984, Indiana Wild Turkey Federation was working with Kim Suitors, an Indiana Conservation Officer, to offer a $300 reward to any person providing information leading to the arrest and conviction of anyone illegally killing an Indiana wild turkey. Such enforcement of game laws and prosecution of poaches is essential to conservation success. (Today, Hoosiers can report suspicious activity by calling 1-800-TIP-IDNR or visit tip.IN.gov.)

And by 1991, for the first time spring wild turkey hunting seasons were open in all 49 states with turkey populations.

In 1996, the 27^th Indiana turkey season, around 29,000 Hoosier turkey hunters bagged 4900 wild turkeys in 52 counties, a 5 percent increase over the previous year, and the 14^th consecutive turkey harvest increase. By 1997, 74 counties were opened to turkey hunting. As for Hoosiers taking to the woods, in the late 90s the average was around 22,000, whereas 2020 saw 74,500 hunters. While hunter numbers have more than tripled, annual turkey harvest has about doubled, with 6,000 gobblers being taken on average in the late 90s, and 14,492 in 2020.

In 2024, Indiana sold 27,780 turkey licenses. 8,620 birds were harvested during the spring season, with a success rate of around 31%. Geriann Albers, the Furbearer and Turkey Program Leader with IN DNR notes that Indiana’s turkey populations are stable long-term. The Brood X cicada emergence in 2023 and 2024 was a boon to our turkeys, and the state saw record harvests as a result. Although this event can be seen as an anomaly, Albers notes, “our reproduction has been on par with our average the last few years and we’ve had some good gobbling.”

(“Roadside Gobbling Indices,” Indiana Department of Natural Resources)

Wild Turkey Conservation and Habitat Today

Today, the biggest threat to the wild turkey continues to be habitat loss.

As mentioned at the outset, in the 1700s what would become Indiana was covered in 20 million acres of forests. Today, we have 4.9 million acres of forestland. Of that, 84% is privately owned, which leaves only 722,713 acres of public forests to be managed by the state and the US Forest Service. However, some of the historic losses have been offset by the creation of the IN DNR Division of Forestry in 1901.

The Division of Forestry was tasked with restoring Indiana’s depleted woodlands, and it started at Clark State Forest, which was established in 1903. State forests were created throughout the first half of the twentieth century and the Hoosier National Forest was established in 1961. There are now 15 properties under state management at 156,000 acres. And the work isn’t done yet. In August 2020, the 1500-acre Ravinia State Forest was established, the first time in 67 years that Indiana has created new state forests. In 2024 the 4,000-acre Busseron Creek Fish and Wildlife Area was established. In addition to the work the state does, it is important to consider (and support) the conservation work that Indiana land trusts do, too.

(IN Department of Natural Resources, Division of Forestry)

Given how vast private ownership of forestlands is in Indiana, clearly there is important work to be done in collaboration with landowners. To date, private landowners have enrolled nearly 750,000 acres of forest lands in the Division of Forestry’s Classified Forests & Wildlands Program, which encourages timber production, watershed protection, and wildlife habitat management.

The IN DNR continues to manage properties for wild turkey, and many of the same factors that benefit turkeys also benefit other species. You’ve probably heard the saying, “what’s good for the bird is good for the herd.”

As an example, IN DNR management projects diversify the age classes of the forest, generating young forests, a forest type that numerous species, including ruffed grouse, wild turkey, songbirds, white-tailed deer, and a number of mammals rely on. This forest type, which experts call “early successional,” used to be created by “natural disturbance” events such as tornadoes, fires, and insects and diseases. Today, forests are fragmented from development and these kinds of events no longer happen with the same frequency and intensity as they once did. Management fills this gap. 

Wildlife biologists also seek to manage timber to provide for openings in the canopy to allow sunlight to reach the forest floor. This encourages grasses, forbs, and other early successional plants. It also encourages mast producing trees, shrubs, and conifers also benefits turkeys. For example, dogwoods, crabapple, persimmon, elderberry, blackberries, as well as oaks, hickories, beech, and hazelnut are all desirable for good turkey habitat. Acorns from oaks are critically important to building fat reserves in wild turkeys and other wildlife species in the harsh fall and winter months. As browsers, whitetail deer benefit from acorn mast, oak leaves, and new buds. Right now, Indiana is managing state forests for age class diversity, especially encouraging early successional forest, and for oak-hickory stands.

The story of the wild turkey in Indiana is one of conservation success. But throughout the state valuable habitat continues to be lost, and other game birds are experiencing rapid declines, including the ruffed grouse (listed as state-endangered in 2020), the bob white quail, and the American wood cock. History teaches us that when hunters & anglers put their minds together and put in the work, we are capable of bringing wildlife back from the brink.

Today, we know enough that letting our beloved game birds come anywhere near the brink is inexcusable and unacceptable. However, there is much work to be done. This is why it is essential you continue to support organizations like BHA and get involved in conservation. If you plan to hunt turkey this season, give back at some point in 2025 by coming on out to a grassroots workday, get your hands in the dirt and help to create some wildlife habitat, remove invasive plants, or help to pack trash out of our public lands. We hope to see you soon!

Further Reading:

To learn more about Indiana’s state forests, check out our blog post on timber management here: https://www.backcountryhunters.org/in_bha_hb_1447_-_state_management_of_state_forests

To learn more about timber and vegetation management on the Hoosier National Forest, check out our blog post here : https://www.backcountryhunters.org/indiana_forests_healthy_management_for_biodiversity

“Spring Wild Turkey Harvest Results – 2020,” Wildlife Management and Research Notes, IN DNR

https://www.in.gov/dnr/fish-and-wildlife/files/wmr/fw-MR_2064_Spring_Wild_Turkey_Harvest_2020.pdf

“Wild Turkey Summer Brood Production Indices – 2021,” Wildlife Management and Research Notes, IN DNR

https://www.in.gov/dnr/fish-and-wildlife/files/wmr/fw-MR_2067_Wild_Turkey_Brood_Survey_2021.pdf

“50 years of spring wild turkey harvest in Indiana, 1970-2019,” Wildlife Society Bulletin, by retired IN wildlife biologist Steve Backs

https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/wsb.1265

To learn more about the history of the white-tailed deer in Indiana, check out our blog post: https://www.backcountryhunters.org/the_history_of_the_whitetail_deer_in_indiana

“World’s Finest Game Bird is the Turkey,” Indianapolis News, November 25, 1896 https://newspapers.library.in.gov/?a=d&d=INN18961125-01.1.6&srpos=11&e=-------en-20--1--txt-txIN-wild+turkey------

Indiana Turn-in-a-Poacher

https://www.in.gov/dnr/law-enforcement/turn-in-a-poacher-or-polluter/

“Eastern Wild Turkey,” Indiana Division of Fish and Wildlife

https://www.in.gov/dnr/fish-and-wildlife/files/WMFS_Wild_Turkey.pdf